Method and apparatus for preventing or arresting crack development and propagation

ABSTRACT

A method and surface treatment apparatus for preventing or arresting the development and propagation of cracks in the material surrounding a fastener. The method includes introducing compressive residual stresses in the material surrounding the fastener. The compressive residual stresses offset the high residual tensile and applied stresses which the material may be subjected to in operation and thereby prevent or arrest the development of cracks. The surface treatment apparatus comprises a compression tool, positioning device and at least one sensor for determining the location of a fastener on the surface being treated. Using the output of the sensor, the surface treatment apparatus is positioned relative to a fastener. The compression tool is impinged against the surface of the material adjacent to the fastener and rotated around the perimeter of the fastener thereby inducing a zone of compressive residual stress.

This application claims the benefit of U.S. provisional application forpatent 60/777,019 filed Feb. 27, 2006.

TECHNICAL FIELD

This invention relates to a method and apparatus for preventing orarresting the development and propagation of fatigue cracks in thematerial surrounding a fastener without removing and reinserting thefastener. The invention is particularly applicable to metallic materialswhere stress related failures, such as fatigue and stress corrosioncracking (scc), are a primary concern. Such materials would include,though not exclusively, those materials used in aerospace applicationswhere stress related failures have potentially catastrophicconsequences.

BACKGROUND

Interruptions or discontinuities, such as fastener holes, in anotherwise continuous material serve as stress risers when the materialis placed under load. This means that the material immediatelysurrounding the discontinuity experiences greater stress than thebalance of the material even though the applied load may be uniform overthe entire part. The material surrounding these discontinuities is,therefore, more susceptible to crack initiation and ultimately failure.This effect is especially pronounced when the component undergoescyclical loading and unloading as the part ultimately fails due tofatigue. Failures may also occur as a result of stress corrosioncracking in such areas when the component is exposed to corrosiveenvironments such as salt water. Cracks may also initiate from flaws inthe material such as corrosion pits, fretting damage and similar flaws.

Materials used in aircraft applications are especially susceptible tosuch failures, particularly in airframe structural members and aircraftskin materials. More specifically, fatigue cracks often develop in thematerial surrounding the multitude of fastener holes in the fuselage ofan aircraft. As the fuselage is placed under load, such as when thefuselage is pressurized during operation of the aircraft, the materialsurrounding these holes experiences a greater amount of stress thanmaterial elsewhere in the structure. Over many cycles of loading andunloading such high stresses contribute to the fatigue failure of thepart from cracks initiating in the material surrounding the hole. Thedevelopment of such cracks may have potentially catastrophic effects.The possibility of such failures is ever increasing as aircraft incommercial and military fleets age.

Prior attempts to solve this problem involve inducing compressiveresidual stresses in the material surrounding the fastener hole. Avariety of techniques for inducing compressive residual stresses havebeen previously used including stress coining, indenting, split-sleevecold expansion, split mandrel cold working, and ballizing. U.S. Pat. No.6,711,928—Easterbrook (patented Mar. 30, 2004)—includes an overview ofthese various methods for improving the fatigue performance of a hole orslot. While these techniques are well suited for forming a pre-stressedhole or slot in which a fastener may be inserted, they are not wellsuited for the in situ treatment of the material surrounding fastenersas they would first require the removal of the fastener. For structuressuch as an aircraft fuselage skin, this would require the removal andreplacement of thousands of fasteners which would be extremelylaborious, time consuming and expensive. Therefore, such methodologiesare not well suited for the repair of existing structures.

Further, the residual stress distribution introduced by stress coiningand indenting cannot be precisely controlled to maximize the benefit ofthe induced compressive residual stress distribution. Also, the coiningand indenting processes treat the entire area surrounding the fastenerhole in a single operation. This requires a great deal of force toobtain the desired compressive residual stresses. The application ofsuch extreme forces could potentially damage the structure or skin ofthe aircraft.

Therefore, the need exists for a cost effective and efficient means ofintroducing residual compressive stresses in the material surrounding afastener hole or slot without removing the fastener to prevent or arrestthe development and propagation of cracks.

SUMMARY

The present invention satisfies the need for a cost effective andefficient means of introducing residual compressive stresses in thematerial surrounding a fastener hole or slot without removing thefastener to prevent or arrest the development and propagation of cracks.The method and apparatus for preventing or arresting crack developmentand propagation of the present invention involves introducing residualcompressive stresses in the material adjacent to a fastener in acontrolled manner such that the resistance of the material to stressinduced failure mechanisms is improved.

In one embodiment of the present invention, compressive residualstresses are introduced around a fastener in situ, without removing thefastener before treatment.

In another embodiment of the present invention, compressive residualstresses are introduced around a fastener to prevent the development ofcracks in the material surrounding the fastener.

In another embodiment of the present invention, compressive residualstresses are introduced around a fastener to arrest the propagation ofexisting cracks in the material surrounding the fastener.

In another embodiment of the present invention, a surface treatmentapparatus is used to impart compressive residual stresses around afastener by burnishing, deep rolling, impact peening, indenting, orlaser shocking.

In another embodiment of the present invention, a surface treatmentapparatus is used in conjunction with sensors to locate individualfasteners and introduce compressive residual stresses around thefastener.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

These and other features, aspects, advantages and embodiments of thepresent invention will become better understood with regard to thefollowing description, appended claims, and accompanying drawings where:

FIG. 1 is a cross sectional illustration of an aircraft skin materialjoined to a stringer with a fastener.

FIG. 2 shows a region of compressive residual stress introduced around afastener to arrest and prevent cracking.

FIG. 3 is a cross sectional illustration showing the deep layer ofcompressive residual stress introduced around a fastener.

FIG. 4 is a perspective view illustrating a surface treatment apparatusaccording to one embodiment of the present invention.

FIG. 5 is a perspective view illustrating a surface treatment apparatusaccording to another embodiment of the present invention.

FIG. 6 is a schematic illustrating a surface treatment apparatus forimplementing the method of preventing or arresting crack development andpropagation around a fastener, according to one embodiment of thepresent invention.

FIG. 7 is a perspective view illustrating a surface treatment apparatusaccording to one embodiment of the present invention being used to treatfasteners in the skin material of an aircraft fuselage.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION

The method and apparatus of the present invention utilize theintroduction of compressive residual stresses to prevent or arrest thedevelopment and propagation of cracks in the material directly adjacentto a fastener in a metallic material. The method and apparatus areparticularly well suited to treat the area surrounding fasteners on theskin material of an aircraft fuselage where fatigue cracks are known todevelop. Referring to FIG. 1, a cross-sectional view is shown of thepoint of attachment 100 of a metal skin sheet 104 to a structural memberor stringer 106. The skin sheet 104 is attached to the stringer 106 by afastener 102 that passes through a hole in the skin sheet and is securedin the stringer 106. The fastener 102 may be a screw, rivet, bolt, pin,or other similar interference fit connector or fastener. The fastener102 may also be a spot weld.

Prior to the introduction of compressive residual stresses, the hole inthe sheet material acts as a stress riser, effectively amplifying thetensile stresses experienced by the skin sheet during cyclic loading.The amplifying effect of the stress riser places the region 110surrounding the fastener in a state of tension (indicated by the “+” inFIG. 1). This tension makes the region 110 prone to the development offatigue cracks 108. Further cyclic loading causes the fatigue cracks 108to propagate and grow, eventually culminating in the complete failure ofthe material.

Referring now to FIG. 2, the method for preventing or arresting crackdevelopment and propagation is carried out by introducing a deep layerof compressive residual stresses in the surface of the skin sheet 104 inthe region 110 immediately adjacent to the fastener 102. The deep layerof compressive residual stress may extend substantially through thethickness of the skin sheet 104. The introduction of the compressiveresidual stress is accomplished by burnishing, deep rolling, shotpeening, controlled impact peening, laser shocking or any other meanscapable of the in situ introduction of compressive residual stresses inthe skin sheet without removing the fastener 102. The introduction ofcompressive residual stresses has the effect of “squeezing” orcompressing the material in the region 110 around the fastener inward,towards the fastener 102. This “squeezing” effect produces both “hoop”or circumferential compression and radial compression that mitigates thedevelopment of new cracks and arrests the growth and propagation ofexisting cracks 108 as the tensile stresses causing the formation andpropagation of these cracks are offset by the induced compressiveresidual stresses. The shape and size of the region 110 in whichcompressive residual stresses are induced may be determined byoperational experience, mathematical modeling, or a combination thereof.

As shown in FIG. 3, the deep layer of compressive residual stress 112(shaded portion) extends into the surface of the skin sheet 104 in theregion 110 immediately adjacent to the fastener 102. The deep layer ofcompressive residual stress 112 extends to a predetermined depth that isknown through operational experience and/or mathematical modeling toarrest or mitigate the development of cracks. This depth maysubstantially extend through the entire thickness of the skin sheet 104.

Referring to FIG. 4, one embodiment of the surface treatment apparatus400 consists of a compression tool 402 for inducing compressive residualstress removably positioned on a tool holder 404. The compression toolcan be selected from the list including, but not limited to, burnishingtools, deep rolling tools, impact peening tools, laser shocking toolsand indenting tools. Preferably, the compression tool 402 is aburnishing tool having a burnishing ball 412, the forward most tip 414of which contacts the surface being treated in a rolling motion toinduce compressive residual stress.

In another embodiment of the present invention shown in FIG. 5, the toolholder 404 is fixedly attached to a shaft 406. The shaft 406 isconnected to the armature 408 of a rotary actuator 410 that providesrotational motion to the shaft 406 and tool holder 404. The compressiontool 402 is positioned radially on the tool holder 404 such that, as thetool holder 404 and compression tool 402 rotate, the path of thecompression tool 402 defines a circle of radius r whose center point isconcentric with the axis of rotation of the shaft 406. The size of thedescribed circle is increased or decreased by adjusting the position ofcompression tool 402 with respect to the axis of rotation of the shaft406. As schematically illustrated in FIG. 6, the surface treatmentapparatus 400 is preferably mounted to a conventional positioning device418, such as a robotic arm or milling machine (not shown).

The surface treatment apparatus 400 of the present invention can bemanually or automatically operated. As schematically illustrated in FIG.6, the surface treatment apparatus 400 can include a control unit 420for controlling the positioning device 418 and the rotation of thecompression tool 402 as well as the force applied by the compressiontool 402 to the surface being treated. The control unit 420 can includea microprocessor, such as a computer operating under computer softwarecontrol.

In one embodiment, the surface treatment apparatus 400 of the presentinvention may also include belt and/or gear drive assemblies (not shown)attached to the tool holder 404 and powered by servomotors (not shown)as is known in the art. The servomotors can be in operable communicationwith the control unit 420 to facilitate the positioning of thecompression tool 402 with respect to the axis of rotation of the shaft406 during operation of the surface treatment apparatus 400. Similarly,belt and/or gear drive assemblies (not shown) and servomotors (notshown) may be used in conjunction with the positioning device 418 andcontrol unit 420 to facilitate computer control in the positioning ofthe surface treatment apparatus 400. Shaft encoders in the servosystems, stepper motor drives, linear variable differentialtransformers, or resistive or optical positioning sensors can be used inconjunction with the drive assemblies and servomotors to facilitateprecise control and reproducibility in positioning the surface treatmentapparatus 400.

The surface treatment apparatus 400 of the present invention may alsoinclude one or more sensors 416 for detecting the presence and positionof fasteners on the surface being treated. The sensors 416, disposedproximate to the tip 414 portion of the compression tool 402, may beselected from the list including, but not limited to, optical sensors,magnetic sensors, electromagnetic sensors, tactile sensors, inductivesensors, resistive sensors, and capacitive sensors. The sensors 416,which are in electrical communication with the control unit 420, detectthe location of each individual fastener. The control unit 420 canutilize the output of the sensors 416 to accurately position the surfacetreatment apparatus 400 with respect to each fastener treated as well asrecord the location of each treatment operation to prevent multipletreatments on the same fastener.

Further, one or more sensors (not shown), including, but not limited to,linear variable differential transformers or laser, capacitive,inductive, or ultrasonic displacement sensors, which are in electricalcommunication with the control unit 420, can be used to measure thespacing of the compression tool 402 above the surface being treated and,thus, the motion of the compression tool 402. Similarly, shaft encodersin servo systems, stepper motor drives, linear variable differentialtransformers, or resistive or optical positioning sensors can be used todetermine the position of the surface treatment apparatus 400 along thesurface being treated. One or more pressure sensors (not shown)including, but not limited to, load cells incorporating resistive, piezoelectric, or capacitive elements, which are in communication with thecontrol unit 420, can be used to measure the amount of force applied bythe compression tool 402 to the material surrounding a fastener. Themeasurements obtained by the motion and pressure sensors arecommunicated to the control unit 420 that compares the measurements topreprogrammed parameters and, if necessary, instructs the positioningdevice 416 to make corrections or adjustments to the direction ofmotion, speed of rotation, and/or force being applied by the surfacetreatment apparatus 400.

FIG. 7 shows the surface treatment apparatus 400 being used to treatfasteners 424, in this case rivets, contained along the fuselage 422 ofan aircraft. The surface treatment apparatus 400 is first positionedrelative to the fuselage 422. Sensors (not shown) relay a signal to thecontrol unit (not shown) that indicates the position of the surfaceenhancement apparatus 400 relative to the surface of the fuselage 422 aswell as the position of the fasteners 424. Utilizing this information,the control unit positions the surface treatment apparatus 400 relativeto a fastener 424. The compression tool 402 is then impinged against thematerial adjacent the fastener 424 and rotated around the fastener 424thereby inducing compressive residual stress to mitigate or arrestcracking around the fastener 424. The location of the fastener 424 andtreatment operation is recorded by the control unit and the surfacetreatment apparatus 400 is repositioned to treat another fastener 424.

In one embodiment of the invention, the surface treatment apparatus ismanually controlled by an operator interfacing with the control unit.The operator positions the surface treatment apparatus relative to thesurface and fastener to be treated. The sensors and control unit assistthe operator in positioning the surface treatment apparatus by providingaudible or visual confirmation of proper positioning. The compressiontool is then impinged against the surface of the workpiece and rotatedaround the fastener thereby introducing compressive residual stress.

In another embodiment of the invention, where fasteners are regularlyspaced, the surface treatment apparatus is programmed to follow aspecific path and treat each fastener at the specified interval. Sensorsare used to position the surface treatment apparatus with respect toeach fastener. The location of each fastener treated, as well as thesurface treatment parameters used and the pressures applied, arerecorded by the control unit.

In another embodiment of the invention, where fasteners are irregularlyspaced along a given path, the control unit is programmed to move thesurface treatment apparatus along a pre-determined path or row offasteners. Sensors are used to locate each fastener along the programmedpath. The surface treatment apparatus utilizes the output of the sensorsto record the location of each fastener, position the device, anddetermine appropriate surface treatment parameters, such as the angle ofrotation, and the force with which the compression tool is impingedagainst the surface being treated, to avoid overlap between adjacenttreatment areas.

As described and shown herein, the method apparatus for preventing andarresting the development and propagation of cracks around fastenersoffers significant advantages over other methods of “pre-stressing”fastener holes and slots as it enables the material surrounding afastener to be treated without having to remove and replace thefastener. This significantly reduces the labor associated with treatingthe material surrounding fasteners post-manufacture, such as treatingthe multitude of fasteners along the fuselage of a serviced aircraft.Further, the use of the compression tool in conjunction with sensors fordetecting a fastener and positioning the surface treatment apparatussignificantly decreases the amount of manual labor required to performthe process.

While the method and apparatus described herein constitutes a preferredembodiment of the invention, it is to be understood that the inventionis not limited to the precise method and that changes may be madetherein without departing from the scope of the invention.

1. A method for preventing or arresting crack development andpropagation in the material surrounding a fastener, the methodcomprising the steps of: locating the position of a fastener;positioning an apparatus for inducing residual compressive stressrelative to the fastener; and inducing compressive residual stress in atleast a portion of the material adjacent to the fastener.
 2. The methodof claim 1 wherein the act of locating comprises the use of sensors fordetecting the position of the fastener.
 3. The method of claim 2 whereinthe sensors used for locating are selected from the list comprisingoptical sensors, magnetic sensors, electromagnetic sensors, tactilesensors, inductive sensors, resistive sensors, and capacitive sensors.4. The method of claim 1 wherein the act of inducing compressiveresidual stress is accomplished by burnishing, deep rolling, controlledimpact peening, shot peening, or laser shocking.
 5. The method of claim1 wherein the act of inducing compressive residual stress in at least aportion of the material adjacent the fastener includes inducingcompressive residual stress in the material circumscribing the fastener.6. The method of claim 1 wherein the act of positioning the apparatusfor inducing compressive residual stress is done manually.
 7. The methodof claim 1 wherein the acts of locating, positioning and inducing areperformed under computer control.
 8. A metallic article comprising: atleast one surface having at least one fastener disposed thereon, thesurface having a layer of compressive residual stress circumscribing thefastener, the layer of compressive residual stress having been inducedin the surface surrounding the fastener with the fastener in situ, thelayer of compressive residual stress extending beneath the surface to atleast a depth known to prevent or arrest the development of fatiguecracks and stress corrosion cracking.
 9. The article of claim 8 whereinthe at least one fastener is a plurality of fasteners.
 10. The articleof claim 8 wherein the layer of compressive residual stress extendsthrough the thickness of the article.
 11. The article of claim 8 whereinthe fastener is a screw, rivet, bolt, pin or spot weld.
 12. The articleof claim 8 wherein the fastener is an interference fit fastener.
 13. Thearticle of claim 8 wherein the metallic article is a skin sheet for thefuselage of an aircraft, the skin sheet attached to a support structurewith a fastener.
 14. The article of claim 8 wherein the metallic articleis comprised of titanium alloys or aluminum alloys.
 15. A surfacetreatment apparatus for the in situ introduction of compressive residualstress in the material surrounding a fastener to prevent or arrest crackdevelopment and propagation, the apparatus comprising: a rotationalactuator; a tool holder attached to the rotational actuator, the toolholder for receiving and positioning attachments relative to the axis ofrotation of the tool holder; a tool for inducing residual compressivestresses in the surface of the workpiece, the tool adjustably positionedon the tool holder.
 16. The apparatus of claim 15 further comprising atleast one sensor for locating the position of a fastener on theworkpiece.
 17. The apparatus of claim 15 further comprising apositioning device for positioning the apparatus relative to theworkpiece.
 18. The apparatus of claim 17 wherein the positioning deviceis a robotic arm or machine tool.
 19. The apparatus of claim 15 furthercomprising a control unit operatively connected to the surface treatmentapparatus.
 20. A surface treatment apparatus for the in situintroduction of compressive residual stress in the material surroundinga fastener to prevent or arrest crack development and propagation, theapparatus comprising: at least one compression tool for inducingcompressive residual stress in the material surrounding a fastener; apositioning device for positioning the apparatus relative to a fastener;and at least one sensor for locating a fastener, the at least one sensoroperatively connected to the apparatus.
 21. The apparatus of claim 20wherein the at least one sensor comprises a plurality of sensors. 22.The apparatus of claim 20 wherein the at least one sensor is an opticalsensor, magnetic sensor, electromagnetic sensor, tactile sensor,inductive sensor, resistive sensor, and capacitive sensor.
 23. Theapparatus of claim 20 wherein the compression tool is a burnishing tool,deep rolling tool, impact peening tool, laser shock peening tool, orcoining tool.
 24. The apparatus of claim 20 further comprising a controlunit operatively connected to the at least one sensor and thepositioning device, the control unit configured to control thepositioning of the apparatus with respect to a fastener and theoperation of the compression tool.